How do we create USEFUL
online learning experiences?

How people learn, abridged version

The useful cell of the honeycomb addresses the cognitive dimension of learning. Here we turn to the work of cognitive psychologist Richard Mayer, and his cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Multimedia Learning, 2009): 

Adapted from “Cognitive theory of multimedia learning,” by R. E. Mayer, 2009, Multimedia Learning, p. 61. © 2001 by Richard E. Mayer.

As depicted in the visual above, we possess two channels for processing information in working memory:

• a visual channel for processing visual information (information that comes through our eyes); and
• a verbal channel for processing verbal information (information that comes through our ears).

Importantly, each channel has limited processing capacity. This means that when designing online learning material, we need to make sure that we are not overloading one channel at the expense of the other (causing information traffic jams, or, in Mayer’s words, cognitive overload). To help learners learn efficiently, it is best to engage the visual and verbal channels simultaneously.

Key take-away 1:
Avoid cognitive overload – engage both channels

Helping learners process information efficiently is an important starting point when designing online learning material. But it’s only a start. In order for meaningful learning to occur, Mayer tells us that learners need to actively process material in each channel. They do this by

Engaging in these processes helps learners to construct a coherent schema or model, which allows them to construct meaning. To encourage meaningful learning, therefore, we design online content to facilitate the cognitive processes of selecting, organizing, and integrating information.

Key take-away 2:
Help learners select, organize, and integrate information

How do we help learners select, organize, and integrate information?

First of all, we use multimedia (defined as words paired with pictures): 

So, our starting place in designing content for online learning is that multimedia helps learners learn. But only if done right. Here are three things that make it right, according to the work of Mayer and his colleagues:

1. Reduce extraneous processing (i.e., minimize distraction)
2. Manage essential processing (i.e., help learners process new material)
3. Foster generative processing (i.e., help learners construct a model/schema) 

© University of Waterloo.

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Sweating the details

 

There are 4 principles we can follow when designing online content to minimize distraction:

Coherence Principle
Leave out unnecessary words, sounds, and pictures

Unnecessary words, sounds, and pictures are considered "seductive details" - they interfere with knowledge construction because they direct learners' attention away from relevant material and towards non-essential material, which may disrupt learners' ability to build an appropriate mental model. 

A few examples of coherent design follow. In each example, you’ll notice well-structured content that uses lots of white space, does a great job of depicting spatial relationships, and only uses images when they contribute to the experience of reading the text.

Example: Coherence

bet100

Reprinted from “Unit 1a, Your Journey” by L. Smith, D. Rose, G. Malleck, 2015, BET 100. Copyright 2015 by L. Smith, D. Rose, G. Malleck and University of Waterloo. View Full Size

Example: Coherence

Reprinted from “Module 3a, What is Intelligence?” by V. Nusca, 2014, PSYCH 213R. Copyright 2014 by V. Nusca and University of Waterloo.

Signaling Principle
Point out important material

Cues help learners select and organize key material. These cues may include verbal (e.g., headings, outlines, vocal emphasis) or visual (e.g., arrows, colours, pointing gestures, bolding, graying out). University of Waterloo learners who participated in user research on the UXDL framework emphasized the important role that signaling plays in online learning: 

 

Example: Signaling

Reprinted from “The Chorus,” by. T. McGee, 2015, ENGL 362/DRAMA 386. Copyright 2015 by T. McGee and University of Waterloo.

Example: Signaling

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

Reprinted from “Module 2.1, The Molecular Nature, Determining Molecular Speed” by J. Grove, 2016, CHE 102. Copyright 2016 by J. Grove and University of Waterloo.

Redundancy Principle
Avoid duplicating narration with on-screen text

Printed words compete with images in the visual channel, risking cognitive overload.

Adapted from “Cognitive theory of multimedia learning,” by R. E. Mayer, 2009, Multimedia Learning, p. 61. © 2001 by Richard E. Mayer.

It's better to use pictures with words:

Learners presented with printed text and narration may try to reconcile the printed text with the narration, wasting cognitive resources that could be better used to construct meaning. The following video provides a succinct description of the redundancy prinicple while also demonstrating how it works.

Mark Marino. (2021, February 9). Mayer's Redundancy Principle. [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lhoOckxJ1GY

Did you find yourself trying to read the on-screen text, pay attention to the organizational visual, AND listen to the narration at the same time? You probably didn’t end up doing any of these tasks particularly well. Why not? Well, first of all, your visual channel was overloaded, trying to process both the organizational visual and the on-screen text. But more importantly, you were probably trying to reconcile the on-screen text with the narration, and used your working memory capacity to do this work rather than try to construct meaning from the narration. This is clearly not an efficient use of your working memory. As Ayers points out, when two sources of information contain the same information, “unnecessary working memory processing takes place trying to integrate the two sources” (Ayers, p.632). Learners should be encouraged either to listen to video recordings or to read the text version, but not both at the same time.

A much better way to present video content is to pair narration with pictures rather than text, making use of both the visual and verbal channels. Here’s an excellent example of video designed with this principle in mind:

Example: Redundancy

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

“Essentials of Entrepreneurial Behaviour”. Reprinted from “Unit 3a, Push of Competition, Pull of Opportunity” by L. Smith, D. Rose, G. Malleck, 2015, BET 100. Copyright 2015 by L. Smith, D. Rose, G. Malleck and University of Waterloo.

There are, however, certain conditions under which text can be paired with narration, and learning isn't negatively impacted.

These include:

• when captions are short, and placed next to graphics (see spatial contiguity);
• the narration is presented before the printed text rather than concurrently;
• there are no graphics; and
• the narration is short.

Recent research further suggests that redundancy may not affect learning when the subject matter is not theoretical (Ozdemir, Izmirli, Sahin-Izmirli, 2016). For example, Ozdemir and colleagues (2016) found that redundancy did not negatively affect learning when participants in their study were learning how to use Adobe Flash (an applied subject).

There are also conditions under which printed text is preferable to narration — see the reverse modality effect in the Modality Principle section below.

Spatial/Temporal Contiguity Principles
Place pictures and related text close together, and have them appear at the same time

Spatial contiguity refers to the spatial placement of text in relation to pictures: when text and pictures are not integrated, learners' attention is split (Ayres, 2015), resulting in extraneous cognitive load. Integration design is the goal. Here's an example:

Example: Spatial Contiguity

University of Waterloo. Brain illustration © seamartini, iStock / Getty Images Plus

Learning is further improved when learners are allowed to place the text next to the relevant parts of an image themselves, rather than seeing them already labelled. This kind of interactivity actively engages learners in cognitive processing. (See Foster Generative Processing below.)

Temporal contiguity refers to the temporal placement of text in relation to pictures: they should be presented simultaneously rather than successively:

Adapted from “Cognitive theory of multimedia learning,” by R. E. Mayer, 2009, Multimedia Learning, p. 61. © 2001 by Richard E. Mayer.

The following video from CHE 102 provides a good example of both temporal and spatial contiguity:

Example: Spatial/Temporal Contiguity

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

Reprinted from “Module 2.1, The Molecular Nature, Determining Molecular Speed” by J. Grove, 2016, CHE 102. Copyright 2016 by J. Grove and University of Waterloo.

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Eliminating the things that cause extraneous cognitive overload is the first step in designing online content that is pedagogically useful. However, we still need to deal with the cognitive overload that arises when essential material is cognitively demanding or complex, or when learners are novices. Mayer calls this essential processing overload.

There are 3 principles we can follow to help learners avoid this kind of overload, and to help them better process essential material:

Segmenting Principle
Break content into shorter, user-controlled chunks

This principle is fairly intuitive: intellectually, it is MUCH easier to digest shorter lecture segments than long, continuous presentations of material (Mayer, p. 177), both for text- and video-based lectures. User research on the UXDL framework further reveals important motivational and attentional benefits of segmenting for some learners: 

 

When segmenting isn’t applied, the resulting negative affect can easily short-circuit instructional goals, as the following learner expresses: 

 The question often raised about segmenting is, "How small is small enough?" Opinion varies on this front. Guo (2013), in his research on Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs), found that video-based lecture viewing dropped off after 6-9 minutes (among certificate-earning learners):

Guo, P. (2013, November 13). Optimal Video Length for Student Engagement. Retrieved from https://blog.edx.org/optimal-video-length-student-engagement?track=blog

Peters (2014) is a little more generous, citing Scott Klemmer’s Stanford Human-Computer Interaction course on Coursera as a good model for video-based lectures. In Klemmer's course, lectures are segmented into topic chunks of 10-20 minutes each (Peters, p. 190).

For slide-based presentations, learning material can be further segmented by restricting the presentation of content to one important concept per screen (Gutierrez, 2016).

For text-based learning material, use paragraphs and subtitles to segment. Walls of text can quickly overwhelm learners — use white space to provide “a visual breather”(Gutierrez, 2016).

Pre-training Principle
Introduce names and characteristics of main concepts first

Pre-training involves introducing learners to the names and characteristics of the main concepts to be covered in a lesson. It is designed to instill prior knowledge of key concepts, and, as Mayer explains, it works by "off-load[ing] some of the essential processing [from the lecture] onto the pre-training episode" (pp. 192-3). This increases learners' available cognitive capacity during the lecture, and allows them to devote more cognitive resources to understanding the material, which makes deeper learning possible.

In an online learning context, the “pre-training episode” can be delivered on the module page, before learners access the lesson content. In this example from PSYCH 101, for instance, learners are introduced to “New Terms and Concepts” before they access the lecture material:

Example: Pre-training

Reprinted from “Module 1, Memory” by P. Wehr, 2017, PSYCH 101. Copyright 2017 by P. Wehr and University of Waterloo.

Modality Principle
Have pictures, not text, accompany narration

Pictures paired with spoken words generate deeper learning than pictures paired with printed words.

Adapted from “Cognitive theory of multimedia learning,” by R. E. Mayer, 2009, Multimedia Learning, p. 61. © 2001 by Richard E. Mayer.

This seems counter-intuitive for those of us out there (and I'm sure there are many!) who prefer to learn by reading printed material. We may well ask, "What is the rationale for this principle?" The answer echoes the rationale for pre-training — it's all about managing cognitive processing. In short, presenting words as narration "off-load[s] some of the essential cognitive processing from the visual channel to the [verbal] channel" (Mayer, p. 203).

The following video from PSYCH 213 provides a good example of the modality principle:

Example: Modality

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

Reprinted from “Module 3b, What is intelligence?, IQ Scores” by V. Nusca, 2014, PSYCH 213R. Copyright 2014 by V. Nusca and University of Waterloo.

Is this always the case?

No. Very few things in life come without conditions. In terms of the modality principle,

• the effect is strongest when the material is complex and when learners are novices;
• some researchers have found a reverse modality effect: that is, owing to its transient nature, lengthy spoken text can be detrimental to learning compared with printed text, which is more permanent and can be revisited (Ayres, p. 632).
• a recent study has also shown that replacing narration with text may be beneficial when learning spatial relationships (Inan et al., 2015)

To mitigate the reverse modality effect, we recommend segmenting narration into bite-sized chunks (see Segmenting Principle), and, where possible, supplementing it with a permanent written record, which can be provided to learners as an alternate format.

The big take-away in terms of helping learners to manage essential processing, then, is to design online instruction in ways that are congruent with the dual-channel, limited capacity way our brains process information. All of the principles outlined on this page become common-sense when we understand how our brain processes information.

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Now that we've eliminated potential distractors from learning and helped learners better process essential material, we need to turn our attention towards helping learners to construct a model or schema of the material. This is what Mayer calls "fostering generative processing" — it essentially means helping learners organize and integrate visual and verbal representations of the material, and then integrate this new material with relevant prior knowledge.

Adapted from “Cognitive theory of multimedia learning,” by R. E. Mayer, 2009, Multimedia Learning, p. 61. © 2001 by Richard E. Mayer.

Learners who engage in generative processing may seem to be passive (that is, they are not engaging in behavioural activity — they are not visibly "doing" anything), but cognitively, they are active. Mayer is very clear on this point:

There are 3 principles we can follow to help learners organize material and integrate it with prior knowledge:

Multimedia Principle
Pair words with pictures rather than using words alone

Mayer describes this principle as "the most fundamental principle of multimedia design" (p. 240); it is so fundamental that it bears quoting him at length:

Presenting words with graphics is crucial because it helps learners to engage in active cognitive processing. 

User research further highlights the important motivational and attentional benefits of mixing different types of media (e.g., text, images, video, interpolated questions), as expressed by the following learners: 

 

While pictures can be beneficial to learning, it is important to acknowledge that not all graphics are created equal – not, at least, in pedagogical terms. Mayer (p. 236) identifies four types of graphics used in instructional material:

Decorative visuals can be further broken down into three subcategories – seductive, conducive-emotional, and conducive-metacognitive (Schneider, Nebel, & Rey):

© University of Waterloo (2017)

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Research suggests that only organizational, explanative, and conducive decorative visuals promote learning. User research further supports these findings – as one learner explains, these kinds of visuals helps them actively process new concepts and increases cognitive engagement:      

 In order to design useful online content, therefore, use these types of visuals, and use decorative visuals (even conducive ones!) sparingly.

We revisit conducive images and discuss the importance of emotional design in more detail on the Desirable page.

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Here's an example of an organizational visual in a technical writing course (explaining how a technical work-term report bridges work terms with academic terms):

Example: Organizational Visual

Reprinted from “Unit 1, What is a Work Report?” by. J. Dolmage, 2016, PD 11. Copyright 2016 by J. Dolmage and University of Waterloo.

Under what conditions does the multimedia principle hold true?

• it benefits learners with low prior knowledge most (Mayer, p. 238);
• some researchers have discovered an expertise reversal effect: for high knowledge learners, "providing diagrams alone can be superior to diagrams and text" (Ayres, p. 632).

Personalization/Voice Principles
Use a conversational style

Online learning can be viewed as an implied conversation between the learner and the instructor: picture a learner sitting alone at her computer, "listening" to the instructor through her computer speakers or headphones. Given this, it makes sense to address your learners as you would in a conversation. Communicating in a conversational style increases learners' feelings of social presence (sense of relationship with the instructor), which, in turn, increases learners' motivational commitment to make sense of the conversation (Mayer, p. 244).

Example: Personalization

Keep this in mind

Did you ever wonder why you are taught what we teach you? Let me put that another way ... did you ever question why you need to learn calculus, or chemistry, or statistics, or economics? How does an engineering program such as ours decide what courses you should take and what topics should be covered? The simple answer is this ... the engineering profession tells us what to do.

Reprinted from “Unit 1, “Having a Logical Approach” by P. Teertstra, 2016, PD 21. Copyright 2016 by P. Teertstra and University of Waterloo.

Personalization can also involve including stories and/or examples that allow learners to relate to the content and instructor. The following video provides a great example of this:

Example: Personalization

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

Reprinted from “Module 1.1, Introduction to Public Health” by J. Atkinson, 2016, Oncore-Encours. Copyright 2016 by J. Atkinson, Peel Health, and University of Waterloo.

Of course, too much of a good thing can be a bad thing: extraneous conversational strategies can be distracting too (Mayer, p. 254). Be personable, but within the context of the subject matter.

Image Principle
Humanize learning

Simply adding an instructor's image (e.g., a "talking head") to the screen has not been shown to promote learning (Mayer, p. 260). In fact, it is potentially distracting (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015). However, human demonstration, — in particular, showing an instructor's hands drawing an explanative or organizational visual, does promote learning:

It is important to note that other approaches, such as drawing out a concept without instructor presence, or presenting a video in which the instructor points to a static image to highlight key points, do not improve learning outcomes to the same degree as human demonstration (Fiorella & Mayer, 2015). This is a relatively new, but growing, area of research.

Here are a few examples of human movement being used to promote student learning:

Example: Human Movement

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

Reprinted from “Week 10, Kinetic Energy of Rolling Motion and Angular Momentum, Rolling Motion Demonstration” by J. Sanderson, 2015, PHYS 111. Copyright 2015 by J. Sanderson and University of Waterloo.

Example: Human Movement

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

Reprinted from “Video Experiments, Lenz’s Law, Transformer, and Generator Demonstration” by S. Idziak, 2015, PHYS 112. Copyright 2015 by S. Idziak, J. Sanderson and University of Waterloo.

Example: Human Movement

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

“Water in the Geosphere”. Reprinted from “Module 6, Water” by J. Johnston, 2017, EARTH 121. Copyright 2017 by J. Johnston and University of Waterloo.

Renkl's Principle
Demonstrate with worked examples

Providing learners with worked examples (step-by-step solutions to problems) has been found to be particularly effective for novices (Ayres, 2015), whereas experienced learners benefit most from answering open-ended questions with supporting arguments (Leppink, Broers, Imbos, van der Vleuten, & Berger, 2012). Worked examples scaffold learning by making problem-solving techniques visible, thus reducing cognitive load. As  learners' conceptual understanding increases, this kind of scaffolding can gradually fade; e.g., worked examples can give way to partially worked examples, and eventually to open-ended questions.

Here’s an example of a worked example in which a sentence in the passive voice is transformed into active voice:

Example: Worked Examples

Reprinted from “Waterloo Writing Works: Active Voice” by. J. Dolmage, 2016, PD 11. Copyright 2016 by J. Dolmage and University of Waterloo.

And here’s a math example, where students are shown matrix-vector multiplication by rows:

Example: Worked Examples

Creator. (Date). Title. Retrieved from URL.

Reprinted from “Matrix Multiplication and Properties” by D. Wolczuk, 2013, MATH 136. Copyright 2013 by D. Wolczuk and University of Waterloo.

The Testing Effect
Provide opportunities for retrieval practice

Related to the efficacy of worked examples is retrieval practice, often referred to as the testing effect in the literature. Research suggests that students learn better, retain new knowledge longer, and are better able to transfer it to new contexts when they are tested on it or test themselves (Roediger & Butler, 2010). Learners who participated in the UXDL user research study indicated that they seek these kinds of practice opportunities: